Hamurabi

On this page

The yearly turn
Land trade
Starvation and the rating
The FOCAL original
Lineage
Place in the strategy genre
Legacy
Related
Mechanics
References
Sources

Hamurabi is a text strategy game: the player rules ancient Sumer for 10 years¹, trading land and dividing grain between food and seed. David H. Ahl converted it to BASIC from The Sumer Game, Doug Dyment’s FOCAL program^2,3. Dyment based his program on a description of The Sumerian Game⁴. Game histories place Hamurabi near the root of the strategy genre^5,6.

DEC printed the game as HMRABI in 101 BASIC Computer Games, first printed in July 1973⁷. Creative Computing’s 1978 BASIC Computer Games, converted to Microsoft BASIC, printed it as “Hammurabi”⁸. The atlas names games by release, and Hamurabi here is Ahl’s BASIC version. Wikidata’s item also covers Dyment’s FOCAL program and dates the game 1969⁹.

The code read here is the 1978 listing, transcribed by Lyle Kopnicky for Vintage BASIC and kept by the coding-horror/basic-computer-games project. DEC’s 1975 printing has the same rules and constants except for one comparison in the seed check¹⁰.

#The yearly turn

Each year opens with the steward’s report of deaths, arrivals, population, land, the last harvest, rat losses, and the grain in store. The first report shows 100 people, 1,000 acres, and 2,800 bushels¹¹. The book’s description gives the store as 3,000 bushels¹², the harvest before the rats took their share.

The player then decides on land, food, and seed, in that order^13,14. In the outline below, d5() rolls a whole number from 1 to 5, each equally likely, and rnd() returns a number in [0, 1)^15,16.

each year:
    report deaths and arrivals; population += arrivals
    if plagueRoll <= 0: population = floor(population / 2)
    report population, acres, yield, rat losses, store
    if this is the 11th report: rate the term and stop

    price = 17 + floor(10 * rnd())
    buy land at price, paid from the store       # buying any land skips the sale
    or sell land at price, keeping at least one acre
    feed:  grain from the store
    plant: acres <= owned, acres < TEND * population,
           seed = floor(acres / 2) from the store

    yield   = d5();  harvest = planted * yield
    r = d5();  if r is even: rats eat floor(store / r)
    store  += harvest - rats
    arrivals = floor(d5() * (20 * acres + store) / population / 100 + 1)
    fed      = floor(food / FOOD)
    plagueRoll = floor(10 * (2 * rnd() - 0.3))
    if fed > population:
        nobody dies                              # the starvation average isn't updated
    else:
        deaths = population - fed
        if deaths > IMPEACH * population: impeached, stop
        fold deaths into the average; population = fed

Rule	Value
Land price, drawn once a year	17 to 26 bushels per acre¹⁶
Food (`FOOD`)	20 bushels per person per year¹⁷
Seed	half a bushel per acre¹⁴
Farming per person (`TEND`)	10 acres per person¹⁸
Yield	1 to 5 bushels per acre¹⁵
Rats	2 chances in 5¹⁹
Arrivals	$⌊ c (20 A + S) / (100 P) + 1 ⌋$ ²⁰
Plague, halving the population	20%²¹
Impeachment (`IMPEACH`), share starved in one year	45%²²
Term	10 years¹

The tending check is strict: $P$ people may plant $10 P - 1$ acres but not $10 P$ ¹⁸. Rats eat from the store left after feeding and seed, before the new harvest goes in¹⁹. Arrivals depend on the population before starvation, and they join at the next report²⁰. The remark beside the plague roll says 15%; the formula gives 20%²¹. An impossible order gets “THINK AGAIN” and the question again, as often as needed; only a negative number ends the game²³.

#Land trade

Land is the only thing the city trades, always for grain, so the game’s commodity trading has one good¹³. Each year draws a fresh price of 17 to 26 bushels per acre¹⁶, the same for buying and selling²⁴. A purchase must be paid from the store and rules out a sale that year¹³. A sale must leave the city at least 1 acre²⁴.

#Starvation and the rating

Everyone not fed dies, and the population becomes the number fed²⁵. Starving more than 45%²² of the people in one year gets the ruler impeached. Ahl added the term and its assessment^26,27. At the end of the term, the game rates it on the average yearly share starved, $P_{1}$ , and the acres per person, $L$ ²⁸.

Fails if	Verdict
$P_{1} > 33 %$ or $L < 7$	impeached and declared “national fink”
$P_{1} > 10 %$ or $L < 9$	“smacks of Nero and Ivan IV”
$P_{1} > 3 %$ or $L < 10$	“could have been somewhat better”
passes all three	“a fantastic performance”

The verdict comes from the first row the ruler fails²⁸. A year with food to spare skips the average’s update, so the next update counts that year at the old average, not 0%²⁹. One bad first year followed by nine years of surplus leaves the first year’s rate as the term’s average²⁹.

#The FOCAL original

Doug Dyment of Digital Equipment of Canada wrote The Sumer Game in FOCAL for the PDP-8, and DECUS listed it as FOCAL-5 in its November 1969 catalog³. Dyment told Kate Willaert that he titled it King of Sumeria and wrote it as a demonstration program⁴. The DECUS listing survives in the so-much-stuff.com PDP-8 archive.

Ahl kept Dyment’s starting state³⁰ and his rules for seed, the harvest, rats, arrivals, and food³¹. He changed the rest:

	Dyment (FOCAL)	Ahl (BASIC)
Land price	18 to 22 bushels per acre³²	17 to 26 bushels per acre¹⁶
Length	until the player stops²⁷	10 years¹
Mass starvation	only kills³³	impeachment²²
Plague	$⌊ 10 \cdot \| FRAN () \| ⌋ = 0$ ³⁴	20%²¹
Farming per person	up to $10 P$ acres¹⁸	up to $10 P - 1$ ¹⁸
Impossible orders	a patience counter, then a strike³⁵	no limit²³

Ahl’s BASIC still resets Dyment’s patience counter after each land trade and after feeding, but nothing reads it³⁶.

Dyment’s listing already spells the steward HAMURABI, with one m³⁷. Ahl’s 1978 note blames the missing m on “the Ahl version”, and Richard Moss on an eight-character limit; the DECUS listing predates both³⁷.

#Lineage

The chain runs from The Sumerian Game through Dyment’s FOCAL program to Ahl’s BASIC³⁹.

Game	Who	Earliest dated evidence
The Sumerian Game	Mabel Addis and William McKay, for BOCES and IBM⁴⁰	a printout of play dated 18 September 1964⁴¹
The Sumer Game (FOCAL)	Doug Dyment, Digital Equipment of Canada	DECUS catalog, November 1969³
Hamurabi (BASIC)	David H. Ahl, DEC	101 BASIC Computer Games, July 1973⁷

Ahl’s 1978 edition credits the FOCAL original to an “unknown” author at DEC²⁶. Dyment heard of The Sumerian Game from a graduate student after a talk at a university in Alberta⁴. One line survives the chain: Dyment’s steward opens each year with “I BEG TO REPORT”, after The Sumerian Game’s “Sir: I am sorry to report”⁴².

#Place in the strategy genre

Ahl’s own book grouped the game with “land and resource management games” and told newcomers to start with it⁴⁷. In BYTE, Jerry Pournelle measured later strategy games against it, calling M.U.L.E. “a cross between Hammurabi, Diplomacy, and an arcade game” and Anacreon “a kind of super Hammurabi”⁴⁸.

Recent histories put it near the start of the genre. Fraser Brown’s history of the strategy game in PC Gamer calls Hamurabi “a strategy precursor”⁶. Joachim Froholt of Spillhistorie.no writes that it “is considered a foundational pillar in the strategy genre and an ancestor of today’s city-building and empire-management games”⁵. Richard Moss’s history of city-building games in Ars Technica calls The Sumer Game “the first computer game to concern itself with matters of city building and management”⁴⁹. “First” is Moss’s word; The Sumerian Game is earlier⁵⁰.

#Legacy

DECUS’s 1978 catalog lists a French version of the FOCAL game and RUBEN, “a modification of the ‘King of Sumeria’ game”⁵¹. Walter Bright typed in Hamurabi from a book of BASIC listings in high school, expanded it as King at Caltech, and wrote Empire when he tired of it; he credits Empire itself to the film Battle of Britain and the board game Risk⁵².

Richard Moss counts George Blank’s Santa Paravia and Fiumaccio (1978) as the most notable of the expanded versions that kept “the same core systems”⁵³. Historian Andrea Contato traces a line from Hamurabi’s derivatives to SimCity and Civilization⁵⁴.

Mechanics

Mechanic	Kind	How
Commodity trading		land at 17 to 26 bushels per acre, one price a year for buying and selling

Every claim about this game, by concept (50)

general	The first report shows 100 people (95 plus 5 arrivals), 1,000 acres, and 2,800 bushels in store, left from a harvest of 3,000 bushels at 3 bushels per acre after rats ate 200.	Code
	The book's description starts the city with 3,000 bushels in storage, but the listing's first report shows 2,800, because rats ate 200 of a 3,000-bushel harvest.	Code
	Each person eats 20 bushels a year, so the number fed is the bushels given divided by 20, rounded down.	Code
	Seed costs half a bushel per acre planted, rounded down, and must come from the store left after feeding.	Code
	One person can farm 10 acres, but Ahl's check is strict, so $P$ people may plant at most $10 P - 1$ acres, where Dyment's FOCAL allows $10 P$ .	Code
	The yield is a whole number of bushels per acre from 1 to 5, each equally likely, and the harvest is the yield times the acres planted.	Code
	A second roll of 1 to 5 sets the rats loose when it is even, 2 times in 5, and they eat the store divided by the roll (half on a 2, a quarter on a 4) before the harvest goes in.	Code
	Arrivals are $⌊ c (20 A + S) / (100 P) + 1 ⌋$ , where $c$ is a third roll of 1 to 5, $A$ the acres, $S$ the store after harvest and rats, and $P$ the population before starvation.	Code
	A plague halves the population when $⌊ 10 (2 r - 0.3) ⌋ \leq 0$ , which holds for $r < 0.2$ , a 20% chance, though the remark beside it says 15%.	Code
	Everyone not fed dies, and the population becomes the number fed; a surplus kills no one and the population stays.	Code
	Starving more than 45% of the population in one year gets the ruler impeached and ends the game.	Code
	A year with food to spare skips the update of the average starvation rate $P_{1}$ , so the next update counts that year at the old average instead of 0%.	Code
	A term is 10 years of decisions; the 11th report ends the game with the rating.	Code
	The final rating tests the average yearly share starved, $P_{1}$ , and the acres per person, $L$ , against three pairs of limits, and the first pair the ruler fails sets the verdict.	Code
	Ahl's BASIC still sets `C` to 0 after a land trade and to 1 after feeding, values nothing reads before the next dice roll overwrites `C`, because in Dyment's FOCAL those lines reset the steward's patience.	Code
	Ahl's steward answers an impossible order with "THINK AGAIN" and asks again as often as needed, and only a negative number ends the game.	Code
	DEC's 1975 printing of the listing has the same rules and constants as the 1978 edition, except that its seed check, `INT(D/2)<S`, refuses a planting that would use the last bushel.	Publisher
	Dyment's FOCAL program starts from the state Ahl kept, 95 people with 5 arriving, 1,000 acres, and 2,800 bushels after a 3,000-bushel harvest at 3 per acre and 200 lost to rats.	Code
	Dyment's land costs 17 plus a roll of 1 to 5, so 18 to 22 bushels per acre, which matches his write-up's average of "one acre for 20 bushels of grain".	Code
	Dyment's program has no term or rating, and after each report it asks whether to continue.	Code
	Starvation in Dyment's program only kills, and no number of deaths ends the game.	Code
	Dyment's plague halves the population when $⌊ 10 \cdot \| FRAN () \| ⌋ = 0$ .	Code
	Dyment's steward has a patience counter, `C`, and when an impossible order finds it below zero, "HAMURABI HAS GONE ON STRIKE" and the game ends.	Code
	Ahl's BASIC keeps Dyment's rules for seed, the harvest, rats, arrivals, and food, down to the arrivals formula $c (20 A + S) / P / 100 + 1$ .	Code
	Dyment's DECUS listing already spells the steward's name `HAMURABI`, with one m.	Code
	Dyment's steward opens each year with "I BEG TO REPORT", and The Sumerian Game reported spoiled grain with "Sir: I am sorry to report".	Code
	The DECUS listing opens with the line `C-FOCAL , 8/68`.	Code
	DECUS's November 1969 catalog lists The Sumer Game, FOCAL-5, by Doug Dyment of Digital Equipment of Canada, "a simulation program/game which will run on a minimal PDP-8 system".	Publisher
	Kate Willaert reports that the game was printed as King of Sumeria in DEC's Focal-8 Demonstration Programs in July 1970, and that Dyment wrote a much more compact revision a year or so after the DECUS version.	Web
	Wikidata's item for Hamurabi also covers Dyment's FOCAL program, under the aliases The Sumer Game and King of Sumeria, and gives 1969 as its year.	Wikidata
	DECUS's June 1968 catalog lists no FOCAL programs, and its one program by Dyment is a Sentence Generator (8-112).	Publisher
	Richard Moss dates The Sumer Game to 1968, on a PDP-8 in FOCAL.	Web
	Ahl's source note in the DEC book says the FOCAL program "has been floating around DIGITAL for nine or more years".	Publisher
	DEC's printing of the listing opens with a remark that it was "converted from the original FOCAL program and modified for EduSystem 70 by David Ahl, Digital".	Publisher
	Ahl's 1978 note says the program was "originally written in Focal at DEC; author unknown", and that he converted it to BASIC and added the 10-year performance assessment.	Publisher
	DEC's 101 BASIC Computer Games, first printed in July 1973, includes the game as HMRABI, "Govern the ancient city-state of Sumeria".	Publisher
	Creative Computing's 1978 BASIC Computer Games, converted to Microsoft BASIC by Steve North, prints the game as "Hammurabi" on pages 78 and 79.	Publisher
	Doug Dyment, then at DEC in Canada, told Kate Willaert he wrote the game, which he titled King of Sumeria, as a demonstration program after a graduate student at a university in Alberta described The Sumerian Game to him.	Interview
	Hamurabi descends from The Sumerian Game through Dyment's FOCAL Sumer Game, which Ahl converted to BASIC, and which Dyment based on a description of The Sumerian Game.	Publisher
	Ahl's 1973 book introduces King as one of the "land and resource management games" and tells newcomers to "start with HMRABI".	Publisher
	Joachim Froholt writes that Hamurabi "is considered a foundational pillar in the strategy genre and an ancestor of today's city-building and empire-management games".	Web
	Historian Andrea Contato says others used Hamurabi as inspiration for derivative games, and that the city and empire management genre that followed led "to titles like SimCity and eventually Civilization, much later".	Web
	Fraser Brown's history of the strategy game calls Hamurabi "a strategy precursor".	Web
	Richard Moss calls The Sumer Game "the first computer game to concern itself with matters of city building and management".	Web
	Jerry Pournelle used Hammurabi as a yardstick for later strategy games, calling M.U.L.E. "a cross between Hammurabi, Diplomacy, and an arcade game" in 1984 and Anacreon "a kind of super Hammurabi" in 1989.	Magazine
	Walter Bright says he typed in Hamurabi from a book of BASIC listings in high school, expanded it at Caltech under the name King, and turned to Empire when he tired of it.	Dev blog
	DECUS's 1978 PDP-8 catalog lists a French "version of HAMURABI (the Sumer Game)" by J. F. Champarnaud and F. H. Bostem of Liège, and RUBEN, "a modification of the 'King of Sumeria' game" by James R. B. Howard II and Jimmie B. Fletcher.	Publisher
Commodity trading	Each year land trades at $17 + ⌊ 10 r ⌋$ bushels per acre for a random $r$ in [0, 1), a whole number from 17 to 26.	Code
	The player may buy land at the year's price if the store covers it, and buying any land skips the chance to sell that year.	Code
	A sale pays the same price per acre into the store, and the city must keep at least 1 acre.	Code

References

^ a b cA term is 10 years of decisions; the 11th report ends the game with the rating.Codecoding-horror/basic-computer-games
How we know
```
10215 PRINT:PRINT:PRINT "HAMURABI:  I BEG TO REPORT TO YOU,": Z=Z+1
```
43_Hammurabi/hammurabi.bas line 10 at 5301155 · upstream ↗
```
21270 IF Z=11 THEN 860
```
43_Hammurabi/hammurabi.bas line 21 at 5301155 · upstream ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^DEC's printing of the listing opens with a remark that it was "converted from the original FOCAL program and modified for EduSystem 70 by David Ahl, Digital".PublisherAhl, 101 BASIC Computer Games
How we know
10 REM *** CONVERTED FROM THE ORIGINAL FOCAL PROGRAM AND MODIFIED FOR 20 REM *** EDUSYSTEM 70 BY DAVID AHL, DIGITAL
p. 129, lines 10–20 · archived copy ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^ a b c dDECUS's November 1969 catalog lists The Sumer Game, FOCAL-5, by Doug Dyment of Digital Equipment of Canada, "a simulation program/game which will run on a minimal PDP-8 system".PublisherDECUS catalog, November 1969
How we know
This is a simulation program/game which will run on a minimal PDP-8 system. The economy of a Sumerian city in the year 3000 B.C. is simulated in the fashion of a modern-day "business game."
p. 18-A, DECUS No. FOCAL-5 · archived copy ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^ a b cDoug Dyment, then at DEC in Canada, told Kate Willaert he wrote the game, which he titled King of Sumeria, as a demonstration program after a graduate student at a university in Alberta described The Sumerian Game to him.InterviewDyment, interviewed by Willaert (2019)
How we know
“I thought that this would make a good demonstration program,” Dyment told me. “The game as I wrote it was titled King Of Sumeria.”
· archived copy ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^ a bJoachim Froholt writes that Hamurabi "is considered a foundational pillar in the strategy genre and an ancestor of today's city-building and empire-management games".WebFroholt 2025
How we know
This game is considered a foundational pillar in the strategy genre and an ancestor of today’s city-building and empire-management games.
· archived copy ↗
The quote matches our archived copy.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^ a bFraser Brown's history of the strategy game calls Hamurabi "a strategy precursor".WebBrown 2018
How we know
A text-based management game that tasked players with distributing resources to their citizens, Hamurabi was a strategy precursor that could be found in schools and on mainframes in the ’60s.
· archived copy ↗
The quote matches our archived copy.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^ a b cDEC's 101 BASIC Computer Games, first printed in July 1973, includes the game as HMRABI, "Govern the ancient city-state of Sumeria".PublisherAhl, 101 BASIC Computer Games
How we know
1st Printing July 1973
copyright page and contents · archived copy ↗
HMRABI Govern the ancient city-state of Sumeria 128
contents, p. 4 · archived copy ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^Creative Computing's 1978 BASIC Computer Games, converted to Microsoft BASIC by Steve North, prints the game as "Hammurabi" on pages 78 and 79.PublisherAhl, BASIC Computer Games (1978)
How we know
Program Conversion by Steve North
title page · archived copy ↗
10 PRINT TAB(32);"HAMURABI"
p. 79, line 10 · archived copy ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^Wikidata's item for Hamurabi also covers Dyment's FOCAL program, under the aliases The Sumer Game and King of Sumeria, and gives 1969 as its year.WikidataWikidata
How we know
+1969-00-00T00:00:00Z
Q1646143 (data/catalog/games.json) · archived copy ↗
The quote matches our archived copy.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^DEC's 1975 printing of the listing has the same rules and constants as the 1978 edition, except that its seed check, INT(D/2)<S, refuses a planting that would use the last bushel.PublisherAhl, 101 BASIC Computer Games · Ahl, BASIC Computer Games (1978) · coding-horror/basic-computer-games
How we know
450 IF INT(D/2)<S THEN 455
p. 129, line 450 · archived copy ↗
450 IF INT(D/2)<=S THEN 455
p. 79, line 450 · archived copy ↗
```
55450 IF INT(D/2)<=S THEN 455
```
43_Hammurabi/hammurabi.bas line 55 at 5301155 · upstream ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^The first report shows 100 people (95 plus 5 arrivals), 1,000 acres, and 2,800 bushels in store, left from a harvest of 3,000 bushels at 3 bushels per acre after rats ate 200.Codecoding-horror/basic-computer-games
How we know
```
7100 Z=0: P=95:S=2800: H=3000: E=H-S
8110 Y=3: A=H/Y: I=5: Q=1
⋮
12218 P=P+I
```
43_Hammurabi/hammurabi.bas lines 6–20 at 5301155 · upstream ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^The book's description starts the city with 3,000 bushels in storage, but the listing's first report shows 2,800, because rats ate 200 of a 3,000-bushel harvest.CodeAhl, BASIC Computer Games (1978) · coding-horror/basic-computer-games
How we know
The city initially has 1,000 acres, 100 people and 3,000 bushels of grain in storage.
p. 78 · archived copy ↗
```
7100 Z=0: P=95:S=2800: H=3000: E=H-S
```
43_Hammurabi/hammurabi.bas line 7 at 5301155 · upstream ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^ a b cThe player may buy land at the year's price if the store covers it, and buying any land skips the chance to sell that year.Codecoding-horror/basic-computer-games
How we know
```
26322 IF Y*Q<=S THEN 330
⋮
29330 IF Q=0 THEN 340
30331 A=A+Q: S=S-Y*Q: C=0
31334 GOTO 400
```
43_Hammurabi/hammurabi.bas lines 24–31 at 5301155 · upstream ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^ a bSeed costs half a bushel per acre planted, rounded down, and must come from the store left after feeding.Codecoding-horror/basic-computer-games
How we know
```
54449 REM *** ENOUGH GRAIN FOR SEED?
55450 IF INT(D/2)<=S THEN 455
```
43_Hammurabi/hammurabi.bas lines 54–55 at 5301155 · upstream ↗
```
62510 S=S-INT(D/2)
```
43_Hammurabi/hammurabi.bas line 62 at 5301155 · upstream ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^ a bThe yield is a whole number of bushels per acre from 1 to 5, each equally likely, and the harvest is the yield times the acres planted.Codecoding-horror/basic-computer-games
How we know
```
63511 GOSUB 800
64512 REM *** A BOUNTIFUL HARVEST!
65515 Y=C: H=D*Y: E=0
```
43_Hammurabi/hammurabi.bas lines 63–65 at 5301155 · upstream ↗
```
92800 C=INT(RND(1)*5)+1
```
43_Hammurabi/hammurabi.bas line 92 at 5301155 · upstream ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^ a b c dEach year land trades at $17 + ⌊ 10 r ⌋$ bushels per acre for a random $r$ in [0, 1), a whole number from 17 to 26.Codecoding-horror/basic-computer-games · Ahl, BASIC Computer Games (1978)
How we know
```
22310 C=INT(10*RND(1)): Y=C+17
23312 PRINT "LAND IS TRADING AT";Y;"BUSHELS PER ACRE."
```
43_Hammurabi/hammurabi.bas lines 22–23 at 5301155 · upstream ↗
the price will vary between 17 and 26 bushels per acre
p. 78 · archived copy ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^Each person eats 20 bushels a year, so the number fed is the bushels given divided by 20, rounded down.Codecoding-horror/basic-computer-games
How we know
```
74539 REM *** HOW MANY PEOPLE HAD FULL TUMMIES?
75540 C=INT(Q/20)
```
43_Hammurabi/hammurabi.bas lines 74–75 at 5301155 · upstream ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^ a b c dOne person can farm 10 acres, but Ahl's check is strict, so $P$ people may plant at most $10 P - 1$ acres, where Dyment's FOCAL allows $10 P$ .Codecoding-horror/basic-computer-games · DECUS FOCAL8-5 source · DECUS FOCAL8-5 write-up
How we know
```
58454 REM *** ENOUGH PEOPLE TO TEND THE CROPS?
59455 IF D<10*P THEN 510
60460 PRINT "BUT YOU HAVE ONLY";P;"PEOPLE TO TEND THE FIELDS!  NOW THEN,"
```
43_Hammurabi/hammurabi.bas lines 58–60 at 5301155 · upstream ↗
04.65 I (D-10*P-1)5.1
f0005.fc#L36 · archived copy ↗
one person can plant and harvest 10 acres
p. 1, Abstract · archived copy ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^ a bA second roll of 1 to 5 sets the rats loose when it is even, 2 times in 5, and they eat the store divided by the roll (half on a 2, a quarter on a 4) before the harvest goes in.Codecoding-horror/basic-computer-games
How we know
```
66521 GOSUB 800
67522 IF INT(C/2)<>C/2 THEN 530
68523 REM *** RATS ARE RUNNING WILD!!
69525 E=INT(S/C)
70530 S=S-E+H
```
43_Hammurabi/hammurabi.bas lines 66–70 at 5301155 · upstream ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^ a bArrivals are $⌊ c (20 A + S) / (100 P) + 1 ⌋$ , where $c$ is a third roll of 1 to 5, $A$ the acres, $S$ the store after harvest and rats, and $P$ the population before starvation.Codecoding-horror/basic-computer-games
How we know
```
71531 GOSUB 800
72532 REM *** LET'S HAVE SOME BABIES
73533 I=INT(C*(20*A+S)/P/100+1)
```
43_Hammurabi/hammurabi.bas lines 71–73 at 5301155 · upstream ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^ a b cA plague halves the population when $⌊ 10 (2 r - 0.3) ⌋ \leq 0$ , which holds for $r < 0.2$ , a 20% chance, though the remark beside it says 15%.Codecoding-horror/basic-computer-games
How we know
```
76541 REM *** HORROS, A 15% CHANCE OF PLAGUE
77542 Q=INT(10*(2*RND(1)-.3))
```
43_Hammurabi/hammurabi.bas lines 76–77 at 5301155 · upstream ↗
```
13227 IF Q>0 THEN 230
14228 P=INT(P/2)
```
43_Hammurabi/hammurabi.bas lines 13–15 at 5301155 · upstream ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^ a b cStarving more than 45% of the population in one year gets the ruler impeached and ends the game.Codecoding-horror/basic-computer-games
How we know
```
79551 REM *** STARVE ENOUGH FOR IMPEACHMENT?
80552 D=P-C: IF D>.45*P THEN 560
⋮
83560 PRINT: PRINT "YOU STARVED";D;"PEOPLE IN ONE YEAR!!!"
84565 PRINT "DUE TO THIS EXTREME MISMANAGEMENT YOU HAVE NOT ONLY"
85566 PRINT "BEEN IMPEACHED AND THROWN OUT OF OFFICE BUT YOU HAVE"
```
43_Hammurabi/hammurabi.bas lines 79–86 at 5301155 · upstream ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^ a bAhl's steward answers an impossible order with "THINK AGAIN" and asks again as often as needed, and only a negative number ends the game.Codecoding-horror/basic-computer-games
How we know
```
25321 INPUT Q: IF Q<0 THEN 850
26322 IF Y*Q<=S THEN 330
27323 GOSUB 710
28324 GOTO 320
```
43_Hammurabi/hammurabi.bas lines 24–28 at 5301155 · upstream ↗
```
87710 PRINT "HAMURABI:  THINK AGAIN.  YOU HAVE ONLY"
⋮
94850 PRINT: PRINT "HAMURABI:  I CANNOT DO WHAT YOU WISH."
95855 PRINT "GET YOURSELF ANOTHER STEWARD!!!!!"
```
43_Hammurabi/hammurabi.bas lines 87–96 at 5301155 · upstream ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^ a bA sale pays the same price per acre into the store, and the city must keep at least 1 acre.Codecoding-horror/basic-computer-games
How we know
```
34342 IF Q<A THEN 350
⋮
37350 A=A-Q: S=S+Y*Q: C=0
```
43_Hammurabi/hammurabi.bas lines 32–37 at 5301155 · upstream ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^Everyone not fed dies, and the population becomes the number fed; a surplus kills no one and the population stays.Codecoding-horror/basic-computer-games
How we know
```
78550 IF P<C THEN 210
⋮
80552 D=P-C: IF D>.45*P THEN 560
⋮
82555 P=C: D1=D1+D: GOTO 215
```
43_Hammurabi/hammurabi.bas lines 78–82 at 5301155 · upstream ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^ a bAhl's 1978 note says the program was "originally written in Focal at DEC; author unknown", and that he converted it to BASIC and added the 10-year performance assessment.PublisherAhl, BASIC Computer Games (1978)
How we know
This program was originally written in Focal at DEC; author unknown. David Ahl converted it to BASIC and added the 10-year performance accessment.
p. 78 · archived copy ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^ a bDyment's program has no term or rating, and after each report it asks whether to continue.CodeDECUS FOCAL8-5 source
How we know
02.60 T !S," BUSHELS IN STORE."!!!"DO YOU WISH TO CONTINUE? 02.70 A " (ANSWER YES OR NO)"Q,!;I (Q-0NO)2.8,7.4
f0005.fc#L14-L16 · archived copy ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger

^ a bThe final rating tests the average yearly share starved,

P_{1}

, and the acres per person,

L

, against three pairs of limits, and the first pair the ruler fails sets the verdict.Codecoding-horror/basic-computer-games

How we know

99865 PRINT D1;"PEOPLE DIED!!": L=A/P
⋮
102880 IF P1>33 THEN 565
103885 IF L<7 THEN 565
104890 IF P1>10 THEN 940
105892 IF L<9 THEN 940
106895 IF P1>3 THEN 960
107896 IF L<10 THEN 960
108900 PRINT "A FANTASTIC PERFORMANCE!!!  CHARLEMANGE, DISRAELI, AND"
⋮
110940 PRINT "YOUR HEAVY-HANDED PERFORMANCE SMACKS OF NERO AND IVAN IV."
⋮
113960 PRINT "YOUR PERFORMANCE COULD HAVE BEEN SOMEWHAT BETTER, BUT"

43_Hammurabi/hammurabi.bas lines 97–116 at 5301155 · upstream ↗

Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.

Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.

In the claim ledger

^ a bA year with food to spare skips the update of the average starvation rate $P_{1}$ , so the next update counts that year at the old average instead of 0%.Codecoding-horror/basic-computer-games
How we know
```
78550 IF P<C THEN 210
⋮
81553 P1=((Z-1)*P1+D*100/P)/Z
```
43_Hammurabi/hammurabi.bas lines 78–81 at 5301155 · upstream ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^Dyment's FOCAL program starts from the state Ahl kept, 95 people with 5 arriving, 1,000 acres, and 2,800 bushels after a 3,000-bushel harvest at 3 per acre and 200 lost to rats.CodeDECUS FOCAL8-5 source
How we know
01.10 S P=95;S S=2800;S H=3000;S E=200;S Y=3;S A=1000;S I=5;S Q=1
f0005.fc#L4 · archived copy ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^Ahl's BASIC keeps Dyment's rules for seed, the harvest, rats, arrivals, and food, down to the arrivals formula $c (20 A + S) / P / 100 + 1$ .CodeDECUS FOCAL8-5 source · coding-horror/basic-computer-games
How we know
05.10 S S=S-FITR(D/2);D 8;S Y=C;S H=D*Y 05.20 D 8;S E=0;I (FITR(C/2)-C/2)5.3;S E=S/C 05.30 S S=S-E+H;D 8;S I=FITR(C*(20*A+S)/P/100+1);S C=FITR(Q/20)
f0005.fc#L41-L43 · archived copy ↗
```
62510 S=S-INT(D/2)
⋮
65515 Y=C: H=D*Y: E=0
⋮
67522 IF INT(C/2)<>C/2 THEN 530
⋮
69525 E=INT(S/C)
70530 S=S-E+H
⋮
73533 I=INT(C*(20*A+S)/P/100+1)
⋮
75540 C=INT(Q/20)
```
43_Hammurabi/hammurabi.bas lines 62–75 at 5301155 · upstream ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^Dyment's land costs 17 plus a roll of 1 to 5, so 18 to 22 bushels per acre, which matches his write-up's average of "one acre for 20 bushels of grain".CodeDECUS FOCAL8-5 source · DECUS FOCAL8-5 write-up
How we know
03.10 D 6;D 8;S Y=C+17;T "THIS YEAR, LAND MAY BE TRADED FOR 03.20 T Y," BUSHELS PER ACRE;";S C=1
f0005.fc#L18-L19 · archived copy ↗
08.10 S C=FITR(5*FABS(FRAN()))+1
f0005.fc#L54 · archived copy ↗
The price varies from year to year, but averages one acre for 20 bushels of grain.
p. 1, Abstract · archived copy ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^Starvation in Dyment's program only kills, and no number of deaths ends the game.CodeDECUS FOCAL8-5 source
How we know
05.40 S Q=FITR(10*FABS(FRAN()));I (P-C)2.1;S D=P-C;S P=C;G 2.2
f0005.fc#L44 · archived copy ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^Dyment's plague halves the population when $⌊ 10 \cdot | FRAN () | ⌋ = 0$ .CodeDECUS FOCAL8-5 source
How we know
S Q=FITR(10*FABS(FRAN()))
f0005.fc#L44 · archived copy ↗
I (-Q)2.3 02.27 S P=FITR(P/2);T !"HALF THE PEOPLE DIED FROM A PLAGUE EPIDEMIC,
f0005.fc#L8-L9 · archived copy ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^Dyment's steward has a patience counter, C, and when an impossible order finds it below zero, "HAMURABI HAS GONE ON STRIKE" and the game ends.CodeDECUS FOCAL8-5 source · DECUS FOCAL8-5 write-up
How we know
07.10 I (C)7.2;S C=C-1;D 6;T "PLEASE THINK AGAIN. YOU HAVE ONLY";R 07.20 T !"HAMURABI HAS GONE ON STRIKE! YOU WILL HAVE TO STOP 07.30 T !"AND FIND YOURSELF ANOTHER STEWARD!"!!
f0005.fc#L48-L51 · archived copy ↗
S C=1
f0005.fc#L19 · archived copy ↗
Hamurabi's "patience counter"
p. 4, variables · archived copy ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^Ahl's BASIC still sets C to 0 after a land trade and to 1 after feeding, values nothing reads before the next dice roll overwrites C, because in Dyment's FOCAL those lines reset the steward's patience.Codecoding-horror/basic-computer-games · DECUS FOCAL8-5 source
How we know
```
30331 A=A+Q: S=S-Y*Q: C=0
```
43_Hammurabi/hammurabi.bas line 30 at 5301155 · upstream ↗
```
37350 A=A-Q: S=S+Y*Q: C=0
```
43_Hammurabi/hammurabi.bas line 37 at 5301155 · upstream ↗
```
46430 S=S-Q: C=1: PRINT
```
43_Hammurabi/hammurabi.bas line 46 at 5301155 · upstream ↗
03.90 S A=A+Q;S S=S-Y*Q;S C=0
f0005.fc#L26 · archived copy ↗
04.20 S S=S-Q;S C=1
f0005.fc#L30 · archived copy ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^ a bDyment's DECUS listing already spells the steward's name HAMURABI, with one m.CodeDECUS FOCAL8-5 source · Willaert 2019
How we know
06.10 T !!"HAMURABI: "%5
f0005.fc#L46 · archived copy ↗
it's unlikely that the misspelling of “Hamurabi” was due to space limitations, as it's also present in the longer DECUS version
2021 Update · archived copy ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^Kate Willaert reports that the game was printed as King of Sumeria in DEC's Focal-8 Demonstration Programs in July 1970, and that Dyment wrote a much more compact revision a year or so after the DECUS version.WebWillaert 2019revised
How we know
King Of Sumeria appeared in the DECUS Program Library Catalog as early as November 1969 under the title The Sumer Game, and under its proper name in DEC’s Focal-8 Demonstration Programs in July 1970.
· archived copy ↗
not Dyment’s much more compact revision from a year or so later
2021 Update · archived copy ↗
The quote matches our archived copy.
Revised after a check by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^ a bHamurabi descends from The Sumerian Game through Dyment's FOCAL Sumer Game, which Ahl converted to BASIC, and which Dyment based on a description of The Sumerian Game.PublisherAhl, 101 BASIC Computer Games · Dyment, interviewed by Willaert (2019) · Willaert 2019
How we know
CONVERTED FROM THE ORIGINAL FOCAL PROGRAM
p. 129, line 10 · archived copy ↗
“I thought that this would make a good demonstration program,” Dyment told me.
· archived copy ↗
the BASIC version that appears in David Ahl's 101 BASIC was adapted from this DECUS version, not Dyment's much more compact revision from a year or so later
2021 Update · archived copy ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^Mabel Addis, a fourth-grade teacher, wrote the instructional version, and William McKay of IBM programmed it.PaperWing et al. 1967
How we know
The instructional version of the game was written by Mrs. Mabel Addis, a fourth grade teacher at the Katonah Elementary School. William McKay of IBM programed the game for the computer.
p. 13, note 1 · archived copy ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^The Strong's Sumerian Game collection holds a teletype printout of play, titled "Sumerian Economic Model", dated 18 September 1964.WebNovakovic 2016
How we know
“Sumerian Economic Model” game teletype printout, September 18, 1964
Series I, Object 3 · archived copy ↗
The quote matches our archived copy.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^Dyment's steward opens each year with "I BEG TO REPORT", and The Sumerian Game reported spoiled grain with "Sir: I am sorry to report".CodeDECUS FOCAL8-5 source · Wing et al. 1967 · Willaert 2019
How we know
02.20 D 6;T "I BEG TO REPORT THAT LAST YEAR"D," DIED OF STARVATION,
f0005.fc#L7 · archived copy ↗
Sir: I am sorry to report that bushels of grain have rotted or been eaten by rats this past season
p. 15 · archived copy ↗
Surprisingly, the DECUS version includes the famous line “I beg to report!”
2021 Update · archived copy ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^Richard Moss dates The Sumer Game to 1968, on a PDP-8 in FOCAL.WebMoss 2015
How we know
He coded The Sumer Game in 1968 on a Digital Equipment Corporation PDP-8 minicomputer, using the FOCAL programming language.
· archived copy ↗
The quote matches our archived copy.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^DECUS's June 1968 catalog lists no FOCAL programs, and its one program by Dyment is a Sentence Generator (8-112).PublisherDECUS catalog, June 1968
How we know
This program generates random English language sentences
DECUS No. 8-112 · archived copy ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^Ahl's source note in the DEC book says the FOCAL program "has been floating around DIGITAL for nine or more years".PublisherAhl, 101 BASIC Computer Games
How we know
This is translated from the original FOCAL program which has been floating around DIGITAL for nine or more years.
p. 128, Source · archived copy ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^The DECUS listing opens with the line C-FOCAL , 8/68.CodeDECUS FOCAL8-5 sourcerevised
How we know
C-FOCAL , 8/68
f0005.fc#L2 · archived copy ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Revised after a check by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^Ahl's 1973 book introduces King as one of the "land and resource management games" and tells newcomers to "start with HMRABI".PublisherAhl, 101 BASIC Computer Games
How we know
This is one of the more comprehensive, difficult, and interesting land and resource management games. (If you've never played one of these games, start with HMRABI).
p. 138, KING · archived copy ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^Jerry Pournelle used Hammurabi as a yardstick for later strategy games, calling M.U.L.E. "a cross between Hammurabi, Diplomacy, and an arcade game" in 1984 and Anacreon "a kind of super Hammurabi" in 1989.MagazinePournelle 1984 · Pournelle 1989
How we know
M.U.L.E. is a cross between Hammurabi, Diplomacy, and an arcade game, with lots of subtle strategic decisions
p. 378 · archived copy ↗
Anacreon (the name is based on one of the barbarian kingdoms in Isaac Asimov's Foundation series), like all the Stellar Conquest derivatives, is a kind of super Hammurabi, with provision for rather simple combat thrown in.
p. 115 · archived copy ↗
The quote matches our archived copy.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^Richard Moss calls The Sumer Game "the first computer game to concern itself with matters of city building and management".WebMoss 2015
How we know
While extremely limited in its simulation, Doug Dyment’s The Sumer Game was the first computer game to concern itself with matters of city building and management.
· archived copy ↗
The quote matches our archived copy.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^The Sumerian Game came out of a partnership between the Board of Cooperative Educational Services (BOCES) of Northern Westchester County, New York, and IBM, and was begun in Cooperative Research Project 1948, which ran from February 1963 to August 1964.PaperWing et al. 1967
How we know
Research Project 1948, which lasted from February 1963 to August '64.
p. ii, Preface · archived copy ↗
The Sumerian Game (already begun in the preceding project), The Sierra Leone Game, and The Free Enterprise Game.
p. 12 · archived copy ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^DECUS's 1978 PDP-8 catalog lists a French "version of HAMURABI (the Sumer Game)" by J. F. Champarnaud and F. H. Bostem of Liège, and RUBEN, "a modification of the 'King of Sumeria' game" by James R. B. Howard II and Jimmie B. Fletcher.PublisherDECUS PDP-8 catalog, August 1978
How we know
This French language version of HAMURABI (the Sumer Game) is available on both paper tape and PDP-12 LINCtape.
p. 71, FOCAL8-186 · archived copy ↗
A modification of the "King of Sumeria" game. Problems with the random number generator have been corrected and some additional features have been added.
p. 83, FOCAL8-305 · archived copy ↗
Checked against the evidence by its author, an AI model, 2026-10-20.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^Walter Bright says he typed in Hamurabi from a book of BASIC listings in high school, expanded it at Caltech under the name King, and turned to Empire when he tired of it.Dev blogBright 2000
How we know
One that interested me was printed in a book of Basic game listings, called Hamurabi. I punched it in, and started to modify it. … I got the operator to load in my Hamurabi deck, renamed it to King, and spent the next semester learning how to enhance it. … Tiring of King, I remembered that old game I'd invented as a kid.
Prehistory, First Versions · archived copy ↗
The quote matches our archived copy.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^ a bRichard Moss counts George Blank's Santa Paravia and Fiumaccio (1978) as the most notable of the "expanded versions" of The Sumer Game that kept "the same core systems".WebMoss 2015
How we know
several more expanded versions soon emerged, with different localities but the same core systems. Of these, George Blank’s 1978 Apple II game Santa Paravia and Fiumaccio was perhaps the most notable
· archived copy ↗
The quote matches our archived copy.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger
^Historian Andrea Contato says others used Hamurabi as inspiration for derivative games, and that the city and empire management genre that followed led "to titles like SimCity and eventually Civilization, much later".WebFroholt 2025
How we know
Others used it as inspiration to build derivative games, and the city/empire simulation-management genre became highly popular, leading to titles like SimCity and eventually Civilization, much later.
· archived copy ↗
The quote matches our archived copy.
Checked by a second AI model, 2026-10-21.
In the claim ledger

Sources

Code

Atwood, Jeff and basic-computer-games contributors. 2026. “BASIC Computer Games, updated for 2022 (coding-horror/basic-computer-games).” Commit 5301155. coding-horror/basic-computer-games @ 5301155 · licence, all uses
Dyment, Doug. n.d. “The Sumer Game, FOCAL source (DECUS FOCAL8-5).” Digital Equipment Computer Users Society (DECUS). svn revision 6211. original · archived · licence, all uses

Primary

Ahl, David H. 1975. “101 BASIC Computer Games.” Digital Equipment Corporation. original · archived · licence, all uses
1969. “DECUS Program Library Catalog, November 1969.” Digital Equipment Computer Users Society (DECUS). original · archived · licence, all uses
Dyment, Doug and Kate Willaert. 2019. “Doug Dyment on King of Sumeria, interviewed by Kate Willaert.” A Critical Hit!, in “The Sumerian Game: The Most Important Video Game You've Never Heard Of”. original · archived · licence, all uses
Ahl, David H. and Steve North. 1978. “BASIC Computer Games: Microcomputer Edition.” Creative Computing; Workman Publishing (trade edition). original · archived · licence, all uses
Dyment, Doug. n.d. “The Sumer Game: DECUS Program Library Write-up, FOCAL8-5.” Digital Equipment Computer Users Society (DECUS). original · archived · licence, all uses
Wing, Richard L., Mabel Addis, Walter Goodman, Jimmer Leonard, and William McKay. 1967. “The Production and Evaluation of Three Computer-Based Economics Games for the Sixth Grade: Final Report.” U.S. Office of Education, Cooperative Research Project 2841 (ERIC ED014227). Board of Cooperative Educational Services, First Supervisory District, Westchester County, New York. original · archived · licence, all uses
1968. “DECUS Program Library Catalog, June 1968.” Digital Equipment Computer Users Society (DECUS). original · archived · licence, all uses
1978. “DECUS PDP-8 Program Library Catalog, August 1978.” Digital Equipment Corporation. original · archived · licence, all uses
Bright, Walter. 2000. “A Brief History of Empire.” Digital Mars (classicempire.com). original · archived · licence, all uses

Secondary

Froholt, Joachim. 2025. “The Sumerian Game: The ancestor of modern city builders.” Spillhistorie.no. original · archived · licence, all uses
Brown, Fraser. 2018. “The history of the strategy game.” PC Gamer. original · archived · licence, all uses
Wikidata contributors. 2026. “Wikidata.” Wikimedia Foundation. original · licence, all uses
Willaert, Kate. 2019. “The Sumerian Game: The Most Important Video Game You've Never Heard Of.” A Critical Hit! original · archived · licence, all uses
Novakovic, Julia. 2016. “Finding Aid to the Sumerian Game Collection, 1962–1967, 2015.” Brian Sutton-Smith Library and Archives of Play, The Strong. original · archived · licence, all uses
Moss, Richard. 2015. “From SimCity to, well, SimCity: The history of city-building games.” Ars Technica. original · archived · licence, all uses
Pournelle, Jerry. 1984. “Computing at Chaos Manor: NCC Reflections.” BYTE 9, no. 12 (November 1984), pp. 361–378. McGraw-Hill. original · archived · licence, all uses
Pournelle, Jerry. 1989. “Computing at Chaos Manor: To the Stars.” BYTE 14, no. 1 (January 1989), from p. 109. McGraw-Hill. original · archived · licence, all uses